[nextpage title=”Introduction”]
The iceberg model, the onion model and the cultural dimensions are essential in any Intercultural course. These models try to explain the differences and similarities when comparing various cultures. Diversity of culture can be easily explained by the fact that we are all dealing with the same challenges: how to find food and shelter, how to structure our society, etc. The solutions that a specific group of people might apply will differ from group to group.
These models also increase our sensitivity of cultural values and demonstrate that not everyone has the same values.
By the end of this module, you will learn:
- how to appreciate cultural diversity,
- to be able to compare and contrast various cultures,
- to understand your own cultural background,
- to evaluate how useful the application of “cultural dimensions” is to your relationship with other people.
[nextpage title=”The iceberg model”]
Culture is often compared to an iceberg. Just as an iceberg has a visible (cultural aspects we are conscious about) section above the waterline and a larger, unseen (cultural aspects we are unconscious about) section below the waterline, so too can culture be described as having some aspects that are conscious (observable elements of culture which we are conscious about) and others that can only be suspected, imagined, or intuited (elements of culture that we are less conscious about). Also, like an iceberg, the conscious elements only represent a small part of culture and it is only from delving deeper and understanding the elements below the surface that a richer understanding of culture can be formed. When discussing behaviour, beliefs, values and norms and thought patterns, one needs to consider the iceberg/onion model.
Please note: The “iceberg model” is not perfect; some cultural elements can be evident both above and below the waterline. For example, in the case of religion, rituals and symbols may be conscious while beliefs may be unconscious. Someone may be wearing a religious symbol, which is observable if we are familiar with this conscious religious symbol. Some religious beliefs, for example, that some animals are unclean (below the waterline) lead to observables like the avoidance of certain food; we can observe this behaviour, but without other cultural clues we may not be aware that this is linked to a person’s belief. And other explanations are possible for this behaviour too; for example, the specific person might not like to eat meat because they are vegetarian.
The iceberg model also demonstrates the “hidden nature” of our values. The most important part of culture is internal and hidden (Hall, 1976). For example, one can observe that parents give their children pocket money. This would be situated above the waterline in the iceberg model. This behaviour can be linked to the cultural value of “independence” when raising children. In a cultural background where parents value the concept of pocket money for their children it is less likely that parents will advise their children about any arranged marriages and one could also presume that the structure of this society is focused more on individualism rather than collectivism (please see “cultural dimensions” for further details on these terms).
To gain an understanding of the “iceberg model” of culture (Edward T. Hall), firstly visit the video at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=woP0v-2nJCU.
Please also visit the link below for examples of conscious and unconscious elements of culture: http://opengecko.com/interculturalism/visualising-the-iceberg-model-of-culture/.
Please have a look at two other EU Commission funded projects:
- The Vocal-Medical project: http://vocalmedical.eu/glossary/info?module=5. Here you will also find a summary of the iceberg model of culture: http://vocalmedical.eu/glossary/info?module=5#iceberg_model_ie.
- The CES&L EU project’s workshop J also includes a summary of the iceberg model:
Workshop J: https://languages4work.eu/
Source: pixabay.com
[nextpage title=”The onion model”]
The onion model can be compared with the iceberg model: the part that is under the waterline is represented by the inner layer of the onion. It is just another model to convey the message that values are not obvious and require a deeper understanding of a specific culture.
“Culture is as stratified as an onion. We pay attention to concrete matters – language, food and clothing being among the most important ones. In order for a culture to be understood in proper detail, it must be “peeled” layer by layer. The outer layer consists of more obvious traits, the middle layer contains norms and values and the core contains assumptions about existence.” (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1997)
The onion layers are structured in the following way:
The Outer Layer
- Explicit products
- Language, food, buildings, clothes, art; etc.
- Symbolic of a deeper layer of culture
- Prejudices often start at this level
The Middle Layer
- Norms and values
- What is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ (norms)
- Written laws or societal control
- What is ‘good’ and ‘bad’ (values)
- How I should behave (norms) vs. how I aspire to behave (values)
The Core
- Assumptions about existence
- The most basic values by which a society lives
- Unconscious and obvious
- Taps into the core of our existence i.e. survival
- Changes in culture will often happen when survival of a community is at stake
Please note: To test whether something is a basic assumption, question it. The question will often provoke confusion or irritation. We are not aware about our basic assumptions and can only become sensitive about our own cultural background in dialogue with others. For example, when we are experiencing “otherness” and when we are asked to explain our cultural background to others.
Source: pixabay.com
Also have a look at these websites/publications:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Onion-Model-of-Culture-by-Hofstede-Hofstede-1990_fig1_324217826
www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/resource/view.php?id=17691
[nextpage title=”The cultural dimensions “]
Cultural dimensions or cultural value dimensions can be used to compare and contrast different cultures. There is a wide range of values and we do not automatically share our set of values with other people. The cultural dimensions illustrate cultural preferences or the dominant tendencies in a specific group of people. They should be seen as tools for better communication skills across cultures and appropriate behaviour in intercultural encounters. Cultural value dimensions are the specific means by which societies solve universal problems such as providing food or finding shelter. We all face similar challenges but the solutions might vary. Hofstede (1980) is a Dutch anthropologist and was one of the first researchers to conduct surveys about cultural dimensions.
Please note: We have to emphasise that cultural value dimensions are only a tool; putting other people into strict categories would defeat the purpose of the exercises and end up being an act of stereotyping. We have to keep in mind that these are just dominant tendencies in people’s behaviour; their preferences are not a matter of black and white, but can be plenty of shades of grey too. It is also important to note that there are no right or wrongs in evaluating people’s cultural behaviour. It is more important to understand that behaviour and values/beliefs can differ and to understand the deeper meaning, the reason WHY some people are behaving in a specific way or why they are holding a specific belief or value. Cultural value dimensions will raise one’s awareness that there is a variety/diversity of behaviour/beliefs/values possible. There are similarities and differences when we compare people with various cultural backgrounds.
For example, when explaining the concept of preferences in relation to a dominant profile of a society, one could discuss “diseases” as part of the medical/nursing field. How does a specific society deal with the challenge of disease and to improve people’s health? Acupuncture, acupressure, prayer, medicine, surgery, nutrition; etc. could all be classified as valid options. However, if a survey would be conducted, most Europeans most likely would prefer medicine and surgery. This does not mean that some Europeans would not also select prayer or acupuncture. The preferred alternatives are the cultural norms of a specific culture. This survey could also be conducted by VET (Vocational Education and Training) trainers with their learners if they have a culturally diverse classroom; this exercise could provide evidence that not every learner has the same preference for dealing with diseases.
Another way to use the cultural dimensions is to increase the “Awareness of the self and the other” by discussing preferences in relation to awareness of one’s own cultural background when working in multicultural teams. One could start the training on cultural dimensions with a questionnaire that could be completed by participants. This could be part of a group work exercise and participants could compare and contrast their answers.
http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/icopromo/results/Files_WEB/pag1.html
There are many attributes within culture and to increase awareness of these, please visit the links below:
For example, in relation to Geert Hofstede’s work:
Watch an interview with Geert Hofstede on his perspectives on cultural dimensions: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wdh40kgyYOY
Hofstede’s resource on the “dimensions of culture” and Edward T. Hall’s Time Orientations is at: http://www.ctp.bilkent.edu.tr/~aydogmus/Hofstede_Hall.pdf
An explanation on the Power Distance (the degree to which power differentials within society and organisations are accepted.): http://home.sandiego.edu/~dimon/CulturalFrameworks.pdf.
In relation to further information on “culture”:
The ‘Elements of Culture’ resource identifies visible attributes of culture at: http://changingminds.org/explanations/culture/elements_of_culture.htm
Creating a positive culture: Explore the four steps involved in creating a positive culture which includes developing a sense of history, creating a sense of oneness, promoting a sense of membership as well as increasing contact and exchange: http://changingminds.org/explanations/culture/positive_culture.htm
To gain an understanding of Social Norms, with examples and implications please visit: http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_norms.htm
Please have a look at the free cultural awareness training online: https://www.culturewise.net/about/cultural-awareness-training-resources/
Here is a summary of some of the cultural dimensions:
Time
Monochronic:
- Punctuality is important
- Advanced planning is essential
- Concentration on tasks within a working environment
Polychronic:
- Appointments are flexible
- Plans are always subject to change
- Concentration on people within a working environment
Context
High context:
- Indirect communication style
- Most meaning in the context of the message; less information is transmitted through the spoken word
- The status of the speaker and small talk is important
Low context:
- Direct communication style
- Little information beyond the directly expressed words; say it the way you mean it
- The status of the speaker and small talk is not important
Structure of society
Individualism:
- Loyalty to a group is not the main focus
- Self-esteem, strong ego, self-expression and self-realization are all important values
- The extended family might not play a significant role
Collectivism:
- The interests of the group is of greater importance
- People are expected to be interdependent
- Conformity to the respective group’s norms and values is expected
Power distance/attitude to authority
Low power distance:
- Minimise power and status difference
- People in higher positions can be questioned
- The extended family might not play a significant role
High power distance:
- Distance between the powerful & less powerful is accepted as “ natural”
- Clear rules regarding the order of dependencies and the responsibilities of the powerful for the dependent
- Hierarchical inequalities are seen as essential for the society and its well-being
Uncertainty Avoidance
Low:
- Uncertainty is part of life
- As few rules as possible
- Risk taking is positive
High:
- Order is essential
- Need for written rules
- Chance is not desired
Cultural dimensions are about values and preferences:
Source: pixabay.com
Please have a look at two other EU Commission funded projects:
- The Vocal-Medical project: http://vocalmedical.eu/glossary/info?module=5. Here you will also find a summary of the cultural dimensions: http://vocalmedical.eu/glossary/info?module=5#cultural_dimensions_ie.
- The CES&L EU project’s workshop J also includes a summary of the cultural dimensions: Workshop J: https://languages4work.eu/
[nextpage title=”Quiz”]
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